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S. military implemented MCS2 (electronically networked maneuver control systems) in the Gulf War. An expected result was centralization of information in the hands of top-ranking officers. What was less expected was an increase in micromanagement, with many commanders unwilling to use new information systems to unleash the abilities of lower-level staff to make decisions. The desire not to relinquish decision-making power made available by centralization arising from information systems implementation, reinforced and enhanced existing bureaucratic structures in spite of the vision of some that these systems would allow flexible, informed, decentralized decision-making in the field.

Summary A work much more famous than this volume could dream to be started with the phrase, “it was the best of times, it was the worst of time,” and went on to contrast two cities, one cloaked in tradition and one in revolutionary upheaval. It is interesting to note that the vision of digital cities and global communities draws on such contrasts, comparing often-hierarchical traditional patterns of work and governance with the revolutionary potential of information technology as a liberating force, perhaps not for “liberty, equality, fraternity,” but at least for participation, transparency, and empowerment.

A recent example was the attempt of the Bush administration to embed anti-union features in both the proposed merit-based personnel system of the Defense Department’s National Security Personnel System (NSPS), and in a similar human resources system of the Department of Homeland Security. Anti-labor aspects of both were ruled illegal in federal court decisions in 2006 and 2005 respectively. The NSPS software system was found, for instance, to fail to ensure that employees could bargain collectively, did not provide for congressionally-required third-party review of labor relations decisions, and did not provide a fair appeals process for employees.