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Post-civil war reconstruction, the industrial revolution, which started in Europe and spread to the United States, and significant reduction of slavery were defining events in the United States. In the half-century between the Civil War and World War I, according to Lears (2009), a widespread yearning for a new beginning permeated American public life. Dreams of spiritual, moral, and physical rebirth formed the foundation for the modern United States. The 20th century, politically and economically dominated by two world wars, the Great Depression, Nazism in Germany, and the end of colonialism, also saw a significant number of technological, medical, social, ideological, and political innovations.

They include complexity, instability and dynamism, and perceived threats (Mulvey & Padilla, 2010, p. 53). Organizations in newer and fast cycle industries with greater technological innovation mean more complex contexts for their leaders (Castrogiovanni, 2002). For example, the global financial crisis of 2008–2009 has created a substantial amount of instability in international markets. Governments in North America, Europe, and Asia have attempted to quell the financial unrest, with varying degrees of success.

C. plague that struck Athens. Pericles died the following year. Just before his death, the Periclean law of Citizenship was changed allowing his half-Athenian son with Aspasia to become a citizen and Pericles’s legitimate heir. After the death of Pericles, Aspasia found another protector in Lysicles, an Athenian general who served as commander of the battle of Chaeronea and with whom she had another son. After Lysicles death, the historical record of Aspasia ends. Little is known about the last years of Aspasia’s life.